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Responding to this situation, the breadth of perspectives from which coastal and marine issues are being encountered by geographers, the range of subjects investigated, and the number of geographers engaging in coastal-marine research all have increased during the 1990s. As West (1989a) reported in the original Geography in America volume, North American coastal-marine geography during the 1980s was focused toward fields such as coastal geomorphology, ports and shipping, coastal zone management, and tourism and recreation. Research in these areas has continued, but in the 1990s, with increased awareness of the importance of coastal and marine areas to physical and human systems, geographers from a range of subdisciplines beyond those usually associated with coastal-marine geography have begun turning to have begun turning to coastal and marine areas as fruitful sites for conducting their research. Climatologists are investigating the sea in order to understand processes like El NiƱo, remote sensing experts are studying how sonic imagery can be used for understanding species distribution in three-dimensional environments, political ecologists are investigating the ocean as a common property resource in which multiple users' agendas portend conflict and cooperation, and cultural geographers are examining how the ocean is constructed as a distinct space with its own social meanings and \"seascapes.\"
Despite (or perhaps because of) this expansion in coastal-marine geography, the subdiscipline remains fragmented into what we here call \"Coastal Physical Geography,\" \"Marine Physical Geography,\" and \"Coastal-Marine Human Geography.\" Clearly, to fully understand coastal-marine spaces one must integrate both the human and the physical and the coastal and the marine, but few are achieving this integration. occurring Even within the three sub-subdisciplinary labels that we use to organize this chapter, there are divisions among groups of scholars who could benefit from each others' work and prosper through collaboration. Coastal geomorphologists tend to focus either on applied issues surrounding the instantaneous impact of human manipulation or long-term issues in coastal dynamics, but few bridge these literatures to examine medium-term change human/physical process interaction in coastal systems. Coastal-zone political ecologists have little overlap with those who are involved in designing tourism promotion schemes for coastal areas. The AAG’s Coastal and Marine Geography Specialty Group (CoMa) can play a role in facilitating this cross-fertilization within the subdiscipline as well as promoting outreach to non-geographers who research related topics.
The 1990s were a period in which marine and coastal areas became an increasingly significant object of study for human geographers interested in environmental planning, resource management, and development policy, as well as related topics in cultural, political, and economic geography. Coastal areas, in particular, have presented a growing range of issues of concern for human geographers. Although the coastal zone comprises just seventeen percent of the contiguous US’’ land area, it is home to fifty-six percent of the country’s population. 3,600 people are added to the coastal zone daily, increasing population density in U.S. coastal areas from 187 people per square mile in 1960, to 273 in 1994, and to a projected 327 in 2015 (NOAA 1998). Growth rates of coastal zone populations are similarly dramatic around the world, and a host of research topics are associated with this increased population density. Marine areas also present numerous topics for human geographic research. During the 1990s, the rate of extraction of living resources from marine areas has remained at (or, for many species, above) maximum sustainable yields, extraction of non-living resources (especially petroleum) from marine areas has continued to play an important role in the world economy, and global shipping, which had plateaued during the recession of the 1980s, increased again during the 1990s with a commensurate increase in world trade.
This cultural-political turn in the study of coastal and marine tourism is part of a larger trend wherein the sea is becoming an increasingly popular topic for scholars who utilize a combination of cultural geography, cultural ecology, political economy, political ecology, and/or discourse analysis to interpret the ways in which various cultures perceive the sea and allocate access to its diverse resources (Nichols 1999; Young 1999b; Glaesel 2000). Recently, this perspective has been joined with one that emphasizes the ocean as a \"socially constructed\" space that is discursively and materially shaped by societies as they use the ocean. Proponents of this constructivist view stress that the ever-changing social construction of ocean-space serves to limit and enable further social uses of the ocean (Steinberg 1999b) and that in many social systems the ocean is a space that unites, rather than divides, land-based societies (Lewis and Wigen 1999).
Along with this fusing of political geography and cultural geography, there has been a continuation of research in the \"classical\" political geographic tradition, centering primarily on marine boundaries and international conventions that regulate exploitation of the ocean’s resources (Earney 1990; Glassner 1990; Blake 1992) as well as issues in ocean management policy. In this area also, the field of inquiry has expanded recently, as scholars have integrated the study of marine boundaries with research on marine tenure systems, property rights, and territoriality in their efforts to investigate the legal norms that underlie marine boundaries between and within societies (S. Jackson 1995; Schug 1996; Scott and Mulrennan 1999; Steinberg 1999c).
There are always costs and benefits in environmental change and these are unevenly distributed along lines of class, race, ethnicity, gender, and geography (among other axes of difference). The environmental geopolitics of outer space is similarly multi-scale, manifesting itself in contemporary debates on pollution issues such as orbital debris and planetary protection agreements. The cultural, legal, budgetary, and infrastructural footprints experienced in the contemporary space race have measurable environmental footprints on Earth and in outer space. The question of where these footprints fall is arbitrated by larger issues of geopolitical power and vulnerability, which means that human participation in outer space is also a matter of environmental justice.[81] 153554b96e
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